We report on the findings from the short- and long-term environmental monitoring in selected control points within the IRT-Sofia nuclear site, which is an important part of the radiation and radiological surveillance during the operation and maintenance of the facilities at the Nuclear Scientific Experimental and Educational Centre (NSEEC) of the Institute for Nuclear Research and Nuclear Energy. Consideration is given to experimental evidence and analyses covering the last 8 years and the overlap issues with environmental data accumulated from 1961 to 2008 are commented upon.

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In order to determine ¹⁴C in irradiated graphite, a method based on the oxidation of the graphite in the oxygen flow was used. This method makes it possible to visually monitor the end of the process and simultaneously separate ¹⁴C from ¹³⁷Cs and ⁹⁰Sr, which interfere with its determination. This method was used to analyze irradiated graphite samples from the research reactor RFT (NRC Kurchatov Institute) and the RBMK Leningrad nuclear power plant. The concentrations of ¹⁴C and ³H in the irradiated graphite of the reactor RFT were insignificant, except for those in the active zone. In this zone, the concentrations of ¹⁴C and ³H increased by more than two orders of magnitude up to 10⁷ Bq/kg that corresponded to their activation nature. ¹³⁷Cs and ⁹⁰Sr are the main radionuclides contaminating the RFT reactor irradiated graphite that reveals their crash origin. In the RBMK Leningrad nuclear power plant, irradiated graphite was mainly contaminated with ¹⁴C, although fission products ¹³⁷Cs and ⁹⁰Sr also make a significant contribution.

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The decomposition of uranyl nitrate in a matrix of large coarse-granular silica gel (KSKG trademark) under the action of microwave radiation (MWR) was studied. Microwave irradiation leads not only to the formation of solid decomposition products UO₃, UO₂(OH)NO₃, and their hydrates in the pores of KSKG granules, but also to the accumulation of gaseous NO_x and H₂O. The presence of NO_x in KSKG pores leads to the HNO₃ formation in the course of washing of sorbent granules with water. This prevents hydrolysis of uranyl nitrate and the formation of UO₂(OH)₂·H₂O in KSKG pores. The washout of uranium with water and HClO₄ solutions from the KSKG fraction containing the products of the decomposition of 2 and 10 g of the initial UO₂(NO₃)₂·6H₂O under the action of MWR (hereinafter denoted as KSKG-P-I) was studied. Upon the ~7-day contact of the solid and liquid phases at the total ratio S : L = 1 : 20, from 5 to 14% of U passed into the aqueous phase from KSKG-P-I samples obtained in experiments with 10 and 2 g of UO₂(NO₃)₂·6H₂O, respectively. In the course of repeated treatments of KSKG-P-I with water, pH of the wash water increased from 3 to 6, owing to the removal of NO_х from KSKG pores. Then an insoluble phase of uranyl hydroxide UO₂(OH)₂·H₂O, which can also be presented as hydroxylated uranium trioxide UO₃·2H₂O, was being gradually formed from the solution obtained by the treatment of KSKG-P-I with water. On treatment of KSKG-P-I with HClO₄ solutions (pH 1–2), virtually all uranium species formed by MWR treatment of aqueous uranyl nitrate solutions in the KSKG matrix dissolved (at the contact time of the solid and liquid phases of ~21 days, the amount of U that passed into HClO₄ solutions is ~90%). The amount of the U form that is not extracted with HClO₄ solutions and remains in KSKG granules is ~12% of its initial amount. The X-ray phase analysis suggests that the uranium species remaining in KSKG are silicate compounds formed by sorbent saturation with a uranyl nitrate solution and the subsequent MWR treatment.

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3. Э. Е. Коновалов, О. В. Старков, М. П. Мышковский, Л. С. Гудков, А. К. Нардова, “Иммобилизация цезия и стронция, фиксированных на силикагеле, в минералоподобные матрицы в режиме СВС,” в Тезисы докладов, Третья Российская конференция по радиохимии (Радиохимия-2000), Санкт-Петербург, Россия, 2000, стр. 103. (E. E. Konovalov, O. V. Starkov, M. P. Myshkovskii, L. S. Gudkov, A. K. Nardova, “The immobilization of cesium and strontium fixed on silica gel into mineral-like matrices in the SSS mode,” in Book of Abstr. 3rd Russ. Conf. on Radiochemistry (Radiochemistry-2000), St. Petersburg, Russia, 2000, p. 103.)
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4. К. К. Корченкин, А. Н. Машкин, Е. Г. Дзекун, Б. Н. Парфанович, Е. А. Филиппов, “Использование силикагеля для промежуточного хранения долгоживущих радионуклидов,” в Тезисы докладов, Третья Российская конференция по радиохимии (Радиохимия-2000), Санкт-Петербург, Россия, 2000, стр. 125. (K. K. Korchenkin, A. N. Mashkin, E. G. Dzekun, B. N. Parfanovich, E. A. Filippov, “Use of silica gel for intermediate storage of long-lived radionuclides,” in Book of Abstr. 3rd Russ. Conf. on Radiochemistry (Radiochemistry-2000), St. Petersburg, Russia, 2000, p. 125.)
   Retrieved from: https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/33/026/33026137.pdf;
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5. M. Moeller, R. Waitz, “Mikrowellen In-Fass TrocknungEffektives Eindampfen von radioaktiven Flüssigabfällen,” ATW-Int. Z. Kernenerg., vol. 52, no. 12, pp. 807 – 810, 2007. (M. Moeller and R. Waitz, “Microwave in-drum drying. Effective evaporation of radioactive liquid waste,” ATW-Int. Z. Kernenerg., vol. 52, no. 12, pp. 807 – 810, 2007)
6. С. А. Кулюхин, А. Н. Каменская, В. А. Лавриков, “Механизм разложения UO₂(NO₃)₂∙6H₂O под действием микроволнового излучения,” Радиохимия, т. 51, но. 3, стр. 262 – 268, 2009. (S. A. Kulyukhin, A. N. Kamenskaya, V. A. Lavrikov, “Mechanism of UO₂(NO₃)₂∙6H₂O decomposition under the action of microwave radiation,” Radiochemistry, vol. 51, no. 3, pp. 262 – 268, 2009.)
   DOI: 10.1134/S1066362209030084
7. С. А. Кулюхин, А. Н. Каменская, И. А. Румер, “Механизм разложения UO₂(NO₃)₂∙6H₂O под действием микроволнового излучения: Часть 2,” Радиохимия, т. 51, но. 5, стр. 469 – 478, 2009. (S. A. Kulyukhin, A. N. Kamenskaya, I. A. Rumer, “Mechanism of UO₂(NO₃)₂∙6H₂O decomposition under the action of microwave radiation: Part 2,” Radiochemistry, vol. 51, no. 5, pp. 469 – 478, 2009.)
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8. Р. А. Лидин, Л. Л. Андреева, В. А. Молочко, Константы неорганических соединений. Справочник, Москва, Россия: Дрофа, 2006. (R. A. Lidin, L. L. Andreeva, V. A. Molochko, Constants of Inorganic Compounds: Handbook, Moscow, Russia: Drofa, 2006.)
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10. JCPDS—Int. Centre for Diffraction Data, PDF 77-0121, UO₂(NO₃)₂·6H₂O, ICDD, Newtown Square (PA), USA, 2018.
11. JCPDS—Int. Centre for Diffraction Data, PDF 16-0204, UO₂(OH)(NO₃)·3H₂O, ICDD, Newtown Square (PA), USA, 2018.
12. JCPDS—Int. Centre for Diffraction Data, PDF 16-0203, UO₂(OH)(NO₃)·4H₂O, Newtown Square (PA), USA, 2018.
13. JCPDS—Int. Centre for Diffraction Data, РDF 70-0176, (UO₂)₂(OH)₂(NO₃)₂·4H₂O, ICDD, Newtown Square (PA), USA, 2018.
14. JCPDS—Int. Centre for Diffraction Data, РDF 83-2392, (UO₂)₂(SiO₄)·2H₂O, ICDD, Newtown Square (PA), USA, 2018.
15. JCPDS—Int. Centre for Diffraction Data, РDF 49-0014, (UO₂)₂(SiO₄)₂∙2H₂O, ICDD, Newtown Square (PA), USA, 2018.
16. JCPDS—Int. Centre for Diffraction Data, РDF 35-0491, (UO₂)₂(SiO₄)·2H₂O, ICDD, Newtown Square (PA), USA, 2018.
17. JCPDS—Int. Centre for Diffraction Data, РDF 43-0364, UO₃·2H₂O, ICDD, Newtown Square (PA), USA, 2018.
18. JCPDS—Int. Centre for Diffraction Data, РDF 29-1376, UO₃·2H₂O, ICDD, Newtown Square (PA), USA, 2018.
19. F. K. Stohl, D. K. Smith, “The crystal chemistry of the uranyl silicate minerals,” Am. Mineral., vol. 66, no. 5-6, pp. 610 – 625, 1981.
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20. R. A. Porter, W. J. Weber, “The interaction of silicic acid with iron(III) and uranyl ions in dilute aqueous solution,” J. Inorg. Nucl. Chem., vol. 33, no. 8, pp. 2443 – 2449, Aug. 1971.
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21. H. Moll, G. Geipel, W. Matz, G. Bernhard, H. Nitsche, “Solubility and speciation of (UO₂)₂SiO₄∙2H₂O in aqueous systems,” Radiochim. Acta, vol. 74, no. S1, pp. 3 – 7, 1996.
    DOI: 10.1524/ract.1996.74.special-issue.3

SPES is a new generation ISOL facility for the production of intense Radioactive Ion Beams by fission reactions at high rate. Two main topics related to the management of SPES as an intense neutron source are here discussed: the radiation resistance of polymeric components used for its construction and the residual activation of the system after machine shutdown. Radiation effects on elastomeric O-rings and lubricating grease are experimentally investigated to assure reliable operation of the facility and safe post-operation management. Experimental protocols have been developed to irradiate samples in a neutron and gamma facility of a TRIGA Mark II nuclear research reactor. Based on the results of post-irradiation mechanical tests, the most radiation-resistant products are selected. A case study is dedicated to the life prediction of the O-ring of a SPES gate valve. Moreover, extensive Monte Carlo calculations are performed to evaluate the residual radioactivity of the facility after operation. The outcomes represent useful inputs to plan inspection and maintenance during the facility shutdown.

1. G. Prete et al., “The SPES project at the INFN-Laboratori nazionali di Legnaro,” EPJ Web Conf.,vol. 66, 11030, Mar. 2014.
   DOI: 10.1051/epjconf/20146611030
2. A. Andrighetto et al., “Multifoil UCx target for the SPES project – An update,” Eur. Phys. J. A,vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 591 – 601, Dec. 2006.
   DOI: 10.1140/epja/i2006-10144-3
3. A. Monetti et al., “The RIB production target for the SPES project,” Eur. Phys. J. A,vol. 51, 128, Oct. 2015.
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4. R. O. Bolt, J. G. Carrol, Radiation Effects on Organic Materials, New York (NY), USA: Academic Press, 1963.
5. A. Zenoni et al., “Radiation resistance of elastomeric O-rings in mixed neutron and gamma fields: Testing methodology and experimental results,” Rev. Sci. Instrum.,vol. 88, no. 11, 113304, Nov. 2017.
   DOI: 10.1063/1.5011035
6. A. Andrighetto et al., “SPES: An intense source of Neutron-Rich Radioactive Beams at Legnaro,” IOP Conf. Series: J. Phys. Conf. Ser., vol. 966, 012028, 2018.
   DOI: 10.1088/1742-6596/966/1/012028
7. M. Ferrari et al., “An Irradiation Campaign of Lubricants at TRIGA Mark II Nuclear Reactor for the European Spallation Source (ESS) and the Selective Production of Exotic Species (SPES) facilities,” in Proc. 26^th Int. Conf. Nuclear Energy for New Europe (NENE 2017), Bled, Slovenia, 2017, pp. 301.1 – 301.8.
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8. D. Battini et al., “Experimental testing and numerical simulations for life prediction of gate valve O-rings exposed to mixed neutron and gamma fields,” unpublished.
9. R. M. Mortier, M. F. Fox, S. T. Orszulik, “Lubricating grease,” in Chemistry and Technology of lubricants, 3rd ed., Springer, 2010, ch. 14, pp. 411 – 432.
   DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4020-8662-5
10. MCNPX^TM version 2.7.0, Radiation Safety Information Computational Center, Oak Ridge (TN), USA, 2011.
    Retrieved from: https://rsicc.ornl.gov/;
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11. M. Ferrari et al., A residual activation study on the SPES Front-End: Dosimetry and Radiation Protection Calculations, SPES-Note-WPB06_04_0004, Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Laboratori Nazionali di Legnaro, Italy, 2017.
12. A. Ferrari, P. R. Sala, A. Fasso, J. Ranft, FLUKA: A Multi-Particle Transport Code,” SLAC-R-773, CERN, Switzerland, 2005.
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13. F. X. Gallmeier et al., “The CINDER’90 transmutation code package for use in accelerator applications in combination with MCNPX,” in 19^th Meeting on Collaboration of Advanced Neutron Sources (ICANS XIX), Grindelwald, Switzerland, 2010.
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14. D. Chiesa, “Development and Experimental Validation of a Monte Carlo Simulation Model for the TRIGA Mark II Reactor,” Ph.D. dissertation, Università degli Studi di Milano Bicocca, Milan, Italy, 2013.
15. S. Pandini et al., “Effect of combined gamma and neutron irradiation on EPDM and FPM elastomers” in AIP Conference Proceedings, 1981, 020052 (2018)
    DOI: 10.1063/1.5045914

The cyclotron C-80 capable of producing 40–80 MeV proton beams with a current of 100–200 μA has been constructed and put into operation at PNPI NRC KI (Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute of National Research Center “Kurchatov Institute”) [1]. Presently the system has been worked out for the simultaneous beam transportation to the target stations for radioisotope production and to the medical box for the treatment of ophthalmologic diseases. One of the main goals of the C-80 is the production of a wide spectrum of medical radionuclides for diagnostics and therapy. For this purpose the project of the radioisotope complex RIC-80 (Radio Isotopes at the cyclotron C-80) has been developed. The mass-separator application at one of the three target stations of RIC-80 will allow on-line or semi on-line production of a high purity radioisotopes. Among them are radionuclides ^223,224Ra and ²²⁵Ac which decay by the alpha particle emission and are used for therapy of malignant tumors at the early stage of their appearance. The results of target and ion source tests for the production of radioisotopes ^223,224Ra and ²²⁵Ac by different methods, including one with the mass-separator use, are presented.

1. S. A. Artamonov et al., “Design Features of the 80 MeV H^- Isochronous Cyclotron in Gatchina,” in PNPI High Energy Physics Division: Main Scientific Activities 2007-2012, G. D. Alkhazov, Ed., Gatchina, Russia: PNPI of NRC “Kurchatov Institute”, 2013, ch. 5, pp. 332 – 338.
   Retrieved from: http://hepd.pnpi.spb.ru/hepd/articles/PNPI_2007-2012.pdf;
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2. V.N. Panteleev et al., “Project of the Radioisotope Facility RIC-80 at PNPI,” in PNPI High Energy Physics Division: Main Scientific Activities 2007-2012, G. D. Alkhazov, Ed., Gatchina, Russia: PNPI of NRC “Kurchatov Institute”, 2013, ch. 4, pp. 278 - 282.
   Retrieved from: http://hepd.pnpi.spb.ru/hepd/articles/PNPI_2007-2012.pdf;
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3. V. N. Panteleev et al., “The radioisotope complex project “RIC-80” at thePetersburg Nuclear Physics Institute,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. vol. 86, no. 12, 123510, Dec. 2015.
   DOI: 10.1063/1.4937620
   PMid: 26724030
4. V. N. Panteleev et al., “Target development for medical radionuclides ⁶⁷Cu and ⁸²Sr production,” in Proc. 5th Int. Conf. Radiation and Applications in Various Fields of Research (RAD 2017), Budva, Montenegro, 2017, pp. 43 – 47.
   DOI: 10.21175/RadProc.2017.10
5. H. Javar, D. I. Quinn, “Targeted α-particle therapy of bone metastases in prostate cancer,” Clin. Nucl. Med., vol. 38, no. 12, pp. 966 – 971, Dec. 2013.
   DOI: 10.1097/RLU.0000000000000290
   PMid: 24212441
   PMCid: PMC3874447
6. S. Reitkopf-Brodutch et al., “Ablation of experimental colon cancer by intratumoral ²²⁴Ra-loaded wires is mediated by alpha particles released from atoms which spread in the tumor and can be augmented by chemotherapy,” Int. J. Radiat. Biol.,vol. 91, no. 2, pp. 179 – 186, Feb. 2015.
   DOI: 10.3109/09553002.2015.959666
   PMid: 25179346
7. S. Ermolaev et al., “Production of Actinium-225 and Radium-223 from Natural Thorium Irradiated with Protons,” in Book of Abstracts, 7th Int. Conf. Isotopes (ICI 7)[ST1], Moscow, Russia, 2011, p. 32.
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8. V. N. Panteleev et al., “Status of The Project of Radioisotope Complex RIC-80 (Radioisotopes at Cyclotron C-80) at PNPI,” Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. Radiation and Applications in Various Fields of Research (RAD 2015), Budva, Montenegro, 2015, pp. 51 – 56
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9. V. N. Panteleev et al., “Studies of uranium carbide targets of a high density,” Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B, vol. 266, no. 19-20, pp. 4247 – 4251, Oct. 2008.
   DOI: 10.1016/j.nimb.2008.05.045
10. V.N. Panteleev et al., “High temperature ion sources with ion confinement,” Rev. Sci. Instrum., vol. 73, no. 2, 738, Feb. 2002.
    DOI: 10.1063/1.1427345

Technological improvements in radiotherapy machines using small fields (SF) have improved mechanical accuracy and stability, as well as dosimetric control. Small fields are nonstandard radiation fields, for which reference dosimetry cannot be reliably performed using the existing protocols. Field size definition, difficulties of accurate measurements, modeling of SF dose calculations in Treatment Planning System (TPSs), calibration protocol establishing, reference condition achievements, are some of the challenges in SF Dosimetry. Small and Intensity Modulated Radiation Therapy (IMRT) field dosimetry can be very complex – large perturbation effects could make a significant impact on reference dosimetry procedures and output factors. Comparison between different detectors provides valuable information. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the differences of dose profiles and depth dose measured in the same conditions for standard and non-standard radiation fields. Measurements are performed using detectors with different sensitive volumes. Beam quality as well as symmetry and flatness are analyzed. Results from the measurements show that the differences for SF are obvious at the edge of the profiles and in the penumbra region, as well as in the build-up region into depth dose curves. To avoid the uncertainties, for static SF where reference conditions cannot be met and for IMRT fields where delivery conditions are far removed from calibration conditions, the new formalism should be implemented.

1. F. M. Khan, The Physics of Radiation Therapy, 3rd ed., Philadelphia (PA), USA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2003.
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2. E. B. Podgorsak, Radiation Physics for Medical Physicists, 2nd ed., Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2006.
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3. Comprehensive QA for Radiation Oncology, Rep. 46, AAPM, Alexandria (VA), USA, 1994.
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5. Protocol for Clinical Reference Dosimetry of High-Energy Photon and Electron Beams, Rep. 67, AAPM, Alexandria (VA), USA, 1999.
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6. Dosimetry of High-Energy Photon Beams based on Standards of Absorbed Dose to Water, ICRU Report 64, ICRU, Bethesda (MD), USA, 2000.
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7. Absorbed dose determination in external beam radiotherapy, IAEA TRS-398, IAEA, Austria, Vienna, 2006.
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8. Particular Requirements for the safety of Electron Accelerators in the Range 1MeV to 50MeV, IEC 60601-2-1, International Electrotechnical Commission, Switzerland, Geneva, Jun. 30, 1998.
9. Calibration of reference dosimeters for external beam radiotherapy, IAEA TRS-469, IAEA, Austria, Vienna, 2009.
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11. Absorbed Dose Determination in Small Fields for High Energy Photon Beams, PTW, Freiburg, Germany, 2014.
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13. A. J. D. Scott et al., “Characterizing the influence of detector density on dosimeter response in non-equilibrium small photon fields,” Phys. Med. Biol., vol. 57, no. 14, pp. 4461 – 4476, Jun. 2012.
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14. M. M. Aspradakis et al., Small Field MV Photon Dosimetry, Rep. 103, IPEM, York, UK, 2010.
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15. D. Cyarnecki, K. Zink, “Monte Carlo calculated correction factors for diodes and ion chambers in small photon fields,” Phys. Med. Biol., vol. 58, no. 8, pp. 2431 – 2444, Apr. 2013.
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16. P. Francescon et al., “Calculation of k(Q(clin), Q(msr))(f(clin),f(msr)) for several small detectors and for two linear accelerators using Monte Carlo simulations,” Med. Phys., vol. 38,no. 12, pp. 6513 – 6527, Dec. 2011.
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In 2025 the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) will be upgraded to the High Luminosity (HL-)-LHC. This will challenge the silicon strip detector performance with very high fluences and long operation time. Sensors have been designed to survive severe radiation damage as demonstrated by electrical tests and charge collection measurements. Besides that, it is important to predict and understand the long-term evolution of the sensor properties. In this paper, detailed studies on the annealing behavior of ATLAS 12 strip detectors designed by the ITK Strip Sensor Working Group and irradiated with fluences between 5·10¹³ and 2·10¹⁵ n_eq/cm² are presented. During the annealing time at 23°C and 58.5°C systematic charge collection, leakage current and impedance measurements have been carried out until breakdown or the appearance of charge multiplication. The phenomenon of charge multiplication in high irradiated sensors after long annealing times has been investigated with respect to dependencies on temperature and bias voltage cycling. The difference in the annealing behavior between the two temperatures has been analyzed and compared to similar measurements on n-type sensors and with a theoretical model. For sensors with fluences below 3·10¹⁴ n_eq/cm² the effective doping concentration could be extracted from the impedance measurements and was compared with a theoretical model. The results show that ATLAS12 sensors anneal similarly to the previously designed ATLAS07 and the behavior is well described by the theoretical model. Nevertheless, a significant difference in the time constant of the beneficial and reverse annealing with respect to previous n-type sensors has been reported.

1. G. Appolinari et al., High-Luminosity Large Hadron Collider (HL-LHC): Technical Design Report V. 0.1, CERN Yellow Reports 226, CERN, Geneva, Switzerland, 2017.
   DOI: 10.23731/CYRM-2017-004
2. Technical Design Report for the ATLAS Inner Tracker Strip Detector, Tech. Rep. CERN-LHCC-2017-005. ATLAS-TDR-025, CERN, Geneva, Switzerland, 2017.
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The radiation tolerance of chemical vapor deposition (CVD) diamond against different particle species and energies has been studied in beam tests and is presented. We also present beam test results on signal size as a function of incident particle rate in charged particle detectors based on un-irradiated and irradiated poly-crystalline CVD diamond over a range of particle fluxes from 2 kHz/cm² to 20 MHz/cm². The pulse height of the sensors was measured using readout electronics with a peaking time of 6 ns. In addition, the functionality of poly-crystalline CVD diamond 3D devices is demonstrated in beam tests and 3D diamond detectors are shown to be a promising technology for applications in future high rate/high intensity experiments.

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METU-Defocusing Beam Line (METU-DBL) project aims to perform Single Event Effect (SEE) tests for space, nuclear and other applications. Turkish Atomic Energy Authority (TAEA) has a cyclotron which can accelerate protons up to 30 MeV kinetic energy at the Proton Accelerator Facility (PAF) mainly for radioisotope production and for research and development (R&D) purposes. In the facility, the stable proton beam current is variable between 0.1 µA to 1.2 mA and the beam size is nearly 1 cm x 1 cm. METU-DBL pre-test setup, which has been installed in the R&D room, enlarges the beam size with two quadrupole magnets and it reduces the proton flux with a collimator. The pretest setup beam size is about 10 cm x 10 cm and the beam flux is 108 p/cm²/s. The first tests of electronic cards, detectors and also commercial and experimental solar cells have been performed using this setup. Also, the final configuration of METU-DBL is now under construction to provide a beam according to ESA ESCC No. 25100 standard. MCNP Monte Carlo codes were used for the calculations of secondary particles (neutrons, gammas) and residuals.

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The estimation of dose factors for active marrow exposed to bone-seeking beta-emitters, such as ⁸⁹Sr and ⁹⁰Sr/⁹⁰Y (0 – 1.5 MeV and 0 – 2.4 MeV, respectively), is an important task of bone dosimetry. Monte Carlo simulations of electron – photon transport to calculate the active marrow doses are based on the geometrical modeling of bone structures. The model geometry should consist of accurate descriptions of spongiosa fine structure and cortical bone thickness (because of the high probability of low energy electron emission) as well as descriptions of bone macro-dimensions (because the maximum electron path length in spongiosa is about 5-9 mm). New computer tomography (CT) -based methods are widely applied to develop computational dosimetric phantoms. The advantage of the CT-based method is in high realism of the description of complex bone shape as well as in the possibility of an adequate description of bone microstructure with µCT. However, the method has a number of disadvantages, viz.: (1) the method is laborious and expensive; (2) the use of cadavers is associated with organizational difficulties; (3) one cadaver –based model can be non-representative and does not allow estimation of the uncertainties associated with individual variability of human anatomy; (4) cortical bone thickness is fixed based on the CT, for which resolution is worse than the measurand; (5) in practice, the limitation in voxel resolution of the computational phantom often results in narrowing down the strong points given by µCT because of an inadequate representation of the microstructure. Moreover, high individual variability of bone shapes and macro-dimensions negates the advantages of the above-mentioned high realism. The aim of the presented study is to elaborate the algorithm of parametric bone modeling, which allows for the generation of phantoms of hematopoietic bone segments based on known micro- and macro dimensions. We propose an approach that permits easy subdivision of bones into small segments, which may be described by simple-shape geometric figures with appropriate voxel resolution. Spongiosa structure (presented by a stochastic rod-like model and calibrated by literature-derived bone volume-to-total volume ratio) is covered by a homogenous cortical layer. All parameters of the proposed cadaver-free model can be obtained from the literature on morphometry and hystomorphometry. Moreover, the parametric modeling allows the simulation of individual variability of bone-specific dimensions.

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The chemical bath deposition method was employed for the preparation of iron hexacyanoferrate (FeHCF), cobalt hexacyanoferrate (CoHCF), and tungsten oxide (WO₃) films. The films were deposited onto fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) coated glass substrates. For practical electrochromic investigations, an electrochromic test device (ECTD) was constructed consisting of FeHCF (or CoHCF) films as the working electrode, together with WO₃ film as the counter electrode, in 1 M KCl aqueous solution as an electrolyte. Visible transmittance spectra were recorded in-situ. The output integral of the spectral intensity and the spectral modulation, as well as saved energy, were calculated by taking the solar irradiance spectrum AM 1.5 for a normal illumination on the ECTD and its transmittance data in the bleached and colored states.

1. J. M. Dussault, L. Gosselin, T. Galtsian Amundson, “Assesment of buildings energy efficiency with smart window glazing curtain walls,” in Proc. Smart materials, structures & NDT in aerospace conference (NDT Canada 2011), Montreal, Canada, 2011, pp 1 – 10.
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4. M. Casini, “Smart windows for energy efficiency of buildings,” in Proc. of 2^nd International Conference on Advances in Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering (ACSEE 2014), Zurich, Switzerland, 2014, pp 273 – 281.
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    DOI: 10.1021/cm9801237

This paper focuses on 3-dimensional non-destructive characterization of the morphologies of integral-skin cellular polymeric composites using X-ray Microtomography. Rapid Rotational Foam Molding (RRFM) is a polymer processing technology that is capable of creating composites with intricate shapes that have a foamed core surrounded by an integral solid skin layer (similar to the structure of a bone). The analyzed specimens were extracted from composites processed in RRFM having a solid skin made of polypropylene (PP) grades combined with foamed cores made of both polyethylene (PE) and PP grades by implementing a suitable chemical blowing agent (CBA) in extrusion. The resulting cellular structures pertaining to the foamed core and the near-skin area were visualized and their morphological quality was evaluated in terms of cell size distribution and cell density. The stress-strain behavior and 3-dimensional structural changes were monitored and characterized with in-situ compression testing.

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